Work of translators is not so simple as it may seem to be. Knowledge of target language is definitely not enough. Translation process is something more than transferring meaning to meaning. It’s rather transferring culture to culture. Replacing words from source language with equivalents from target language creates a completely different text, not always understandable for readers.
Different kinds of texts, utterances or even sentences demand various approach. Otherwise, we can produce inaccurate or odd-looking translation. Thus, translators use many techniques in their work to convey the meaning. I would like to present some of them, described by Newmark (1988), which deal with more difficult, cultural issues.
Transference
This is the process of transferring the word from the source language to the text in the target language. It includes transliteration.
Naturalization
The word from the source language is adapted to the normal pronunciation, and then to the normal morphology of the target language.
Cultural equivalent
The word from the source language is replaced by the nearest cultural equivalent in the target language. However, these words have only similar meanings, not exactly the same.
Functional equivalent
The word from the source language is replaced by the word culturally neutral.
Descriptive equivalent
The problematic word in the source language is explained, instead of replacing it by the other word.
Synonymy
It applies finding the nearest equivalent in the target language.
Through-translation
It is a literal translation of names of institutions, organizations and collocations, if they don’t exist in a country of the target language.
Shifts or transpositions
It means changing the grammar function of the word e.g. replacing a verb by a noun.
Recognized translation
Using an official name or translation e.g. the name of an institution.
Compensation
If loss of meaning is inevitable, it is compensated in the other part of the text.
Notes
It means adding notes to the text explaining the problematic issue.